Minggu, 03 Mei 2015

Kingdom of Albania.




Kingdom of Albania (medieval)

From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
This article concerns the medieval Angevin state. For the 20th-century kingdom, see Albanian Kingdom, Albania under Italy and Albania under Nazi Germany.
Kingdom of Albania
Regnum Albaniae
Mbretëria e Shqipërisë
Dependency of the Angevin Kingdom of Naples
←

← 		1272–1368 →

Coat of arms of the Angevin dynasty
Kingdom of Albania at its maximum extent
Capital Durazzo (Dyrrhachium, modern Durrës)
Languages Albanian, Lombard
Religion Catholic
Government Monarchy
King, Lord and later Duke
 -  1272–1285 Charles I
 -  1366–1368 Louis
Historical era Medieval
 -  Established 1272
 -  Disestablished 1368
The Kingdom of Albania (Albanian: Mbretëria e Shqipërisë, Latin: Regnum Albaniae) was established by Charles of Anjou in the Albanian territory he conquered from the Despotate of Epirus in 1271. He took the title of "King of Albania" in February 1272. The kingdom extended from the region of Durrës (then known as Dyrrhachium) south along the coast to Butrint. A major attempt to advance further in direction of Constantinople, failed at the Siege of Berat (1280–1281). A Byzantine counteroffensive soon ensued, which drove the Angevins out of the interior by 1281. The Sicilian Vespers further weakened the position of Charles, and the Kingdom was soon reduced by the Epirotes to a small area around Durrës. The Angevins held out here, however, until 1368, when the city was captured by Karl Thopia. In 1392 Karl Thopia's son surrendered the city and his domains to the Republic of Venice.

History

Background events

Statue of Charles I of Naples at the Royal Palace. Charles established Regnum Albaniae after he conquered part the Despotate of Epirus.
During the conflict between the Despotate of Epirus and the Empire of Nicaea in 1253, Gulam of Albania, the leader of Principality of Arbër, was initially allied with Despotate of Epirus. Gulam's troops had occupied the Kostur area trying to prevent the Nicean forces of John Vatatzes from entering Devoll. Vatatzes managed to convince Gulam to switch sides and a new treaty was signed between the parties where John Vatatzes promised to guarantee Gulam's autonomy. The same year the despot of Epirus, Michael II Komnenos Doukas, signed a peace treaty with the Niceans acknowledging their authority over West Macedonia and Albania. The fortress of Krujë was surrendered to Nicean forces. To the city of Krujë, the Nicean Emperor acknowledged the old privileges and also granted new ones. The same privileges were confirmed later by his successor Theodore II Laskaris.[1]
The Niceans took control of Durrës from Michael II Komnenos Doukas in 1256. During the winter of 1256–57, George Akropolites tried to reinstall Byzantine authority in the area of Arbanon. Autonomy was thus banished and a new administration was imposed. This was in contrast to what the Niceans had promised before. The local Albanian leaders revolted and on hearing the news, Michael II also denounced the peace treaty he had signed with the Niceans. With the support of Albanian forces he attacked the cities of Dibra, Ohrid and Prilep. In the meantime Manfred of Sicily profited from the situation and launched an invasion into Albania. His forces, led by Philip Chinardi, captured Durrës, Berat, Vlorë, Spinarizza and their surroundings and the southern coastline of Albania from Vlorë to Butrint.[2] Facing a war in two fronts, Michael II, the despot of Epirus, came to terms with Manfred, becoming his ally. He recognized the authority of Manfred over the captured regions which were ceded as a dowry gift following the marriage of his daughter Helena to Manfred.[2][3]
Following the defeat of Michael II's and Manfred's forces in the Battle of Pelagonia, the new Nicean forces continued their advance by capturing all of Manfred's domains in Albania, with the exception of Durrës. However in September 1261, Manfred organized a new expedition and managed to capture all his dominions in Albania and he kept them until his death in 1266.[4] Manfred respected the old autonomy and privileges of the local noblemen and their regions. He also integrated Albanian nobles into his administration, as was the case with Andrea Vrana who was the general captain and governor of Durrës and the neighboring region of Arbanon. Albanian troops were also used by Manfred in his campaigns in Italy. Manfred appointed Philippe Chinard as the general governor of his dominions in Albania. Initially based in Corfu, Chinard moved his headquarters to Kanina the dominant center of the Vlorë region. There he married a relative of Michael II.[5]

Creation

After defeating Manfred's forces in the Battle of Benevento in 1266, the Treaty of Viterbo of 1267 was signed, with Charles of Anjou acquiring rights on Manfred's dominions in Albania,[6][7] together with rights he gained in the Latin dominions in the Despotate of Epirus and in the Morea.[8] Upon hearing the news of Manfred's death in the battle of Benevento, Michael II conspired and managed to kill Manfred's governor Philippe Chinard, with the help of Chinard's wife, but he could not capture Manfred's domains. Local noblemen and commanders refused to surrender Manfred's domains in Albania to Michael II. They gave the same negative response to Charles' envoy, Gazo Chinard in 1267, when following the articles of the Treaty of Viterbo, he asked for them to surrender Manfred's dominions in Albania.[9]
After the failure of the Eighth Crusade, Charles of Anjou returned his attention to Albania. He began contacting local Albanian leaders through local catholic clergy. Two local catholic priests, namely John from Durrës and Nicola from Arbanon, acted as negotiators between Charles of Anjou and the local noblemen. During 1271 they made several trips between Albania and Italy eventually succeeding in their mission.[10] On 21 February 1272,[6] a delegation of Albanian noblemen and citizens from Durrës made their way to Charles' court. Charles signed a treaty with them and was proclaimed King of Albania "by common consent of the bishops, counts, barons, soldiers and citizens" promising to protect them and to honor the privileges they had from Byzantine Empire.[11] The treaty declared the union between the Kingdom of Albania (Latin: Regnum Albanie) with the Kingdom of Sicily under King Charles of Anjou (Carolus I, dei gratia rex Siciliae et Albaniae).[10] He appointed Gazzo Chinardo as his Vicar-General and hoped to take up his expedition against Constantinople again. Throughout 1272 and 1273 he sent huge provisions to the towns of Durrës and Vlorë. This alarmed the Byzantine Emperor, Michael VIII Palaiologos, who began sending letters to local Albanian nobles, trying to convince them to stop their support for Charles of Anjou and to switch sides. The Albanian nobles sent those letter to Charles who praised them for their loyalty. Then, Michael VIII's hopes of stopping the advance of Charles were laid on the influence of Pope Gregory X. Gregory had high hopes of reconciling Europe, unifying the Greek and Latin churches, and launching a new crusade: to that end, he announced the Council of Lyon, to be held in 1274, and worked to arrange the election of an Emperor, so he ordered Charles to stop his operations.[12]
Charles of Anjou imposed a military rule on Kingdom of Albania. The autonomy and privileges promised in the treaty were "de facto" abolished and new taxes were imposed. Lands were confiscated in favor of Anjou nobles and Albanian nobles were excluded from their governmental tasks. In an attempt to enforce his rule and local loyalty, Charles I, took as hostages the sons of local noblemen. This created a general discontent in the country and several Albanian noblemen began contacting Byzantine Emperor Michael VII who promised them, to acknowledge their old privileges.[13]

Byzantine offensive

As Charles I's intentions for a new offensive were stopped by the Pope and there was a general discontent within Albania, Michael VIII caught the occasion and began a campaign in Albania in late 1274. Byzantine forces helped by local Albanian noblemen captured the important city of Berat and later on Butrint. On November 1274, the local governor reported to Charles I that the Albanian and Byzantine forces had besieged Durrës. The Byzantine offensive continued and captured the port-city of Spinarizza. Thus Durrës alongside the Krujë and Vlora regions became the only domains in mainland Albania which were still under Charles I's control, but they were landlocked and isolated from each other. They could communicate with each other only by sea but the Byzantine fleet based in Spinarizza and Butrint kept them under constant pressure. Charles also managed to keep the island of Corfu.[14][15]
Michael VIII also scored another important diplomatic victory on Charles I by agreeing to unite the two churches in the Second Council of Lyon in 1274. Enthusiastic from the results of the council, Pope Gregory X, forbade any attempt by Charles on Michael VIII's forces. Under these circumstances Charles of Anjou was forced to sign a truce with Michael VIII in 1276.[14]

Angevin counteroffensive

The entrance of the citadel of Berat, with the 13th-century Byzantine church of the Holy Trinity.
The Byzantine presence in Butrint alarmed Nikephoros I Komnenos Doukas the Despot of Epirus. He contacted Charles of Anjou and his vassal William II of Villehardouin who was at that time the prince of Achaea. Nikephoros I promised to make an oath of homage to Charles of Anjou in return for some land property in Achaia. In 1278 Nikephoros I's troops captured the city of Butrint. In March 1279 Nikephoros I declared himself a vassal of Charles of Anjou and surrendered to him the castles of Sopot and Butrint. As a pledge, Nikephoros I delivered his own son to the Angevin castellan of Vlorë to be held as hostage. Ambassadors were exchanged in this occasion, but Charles did not wait for the formalities to end; instead he ordered his captain and vicar-general at Corfu to capture not only Butrint, but everything that once belonged to Manfred and now were under the Despotate of Epirus.[16]
At the same time Charles began creating a network of alliances in the area in the brick of the new offensive, which would have pointed first to Thessaloníki and later to Constantinople. He entered in alliance with the kings of Serbia and Bulgaria.[17] He also tried to get the support of the local Albanian nobles. After continuous requests from other Albanian nobles, he liberated from Neapolitan prisons a number of Albanian nobles who were arrested before being accused of collaborating with Byzantine forces. Among them were Gjin Muzaka, Dhimitër Zogu and Guljem Blinishti. Gjin Muzaka especially was important to Charles' plans because the Muzaka family territories were around city of Berat. They were liberated, but were ordered to sent their sons as hostages in Naples.[18]
On August 1279, Charles of Anjou appointed Hugo de Sully as Captain and Vicar-General of Albania, Durrës, Vlorë, Sopot, Butrint and Corfu In the following months a great Angevin counteroffensive was prepared.[17] A lot of materials and men including Saracen archers and siege engineers were sent to de Sully, who had captured Spinarizza from Byzantine forces making it his headquarters.[19] The first goal of the expedition was the recapture of the city of Berat, which had been under Byzantine control since 1274. However, Charles' preparations were restrained by Pope Nicholas III who had forbidden Charles from attacking the Byzantine Empire. However, Pope Nicholas III died on August 1280 and for more than six months the Pope's seat was vacant. This gave Charles an opportunity to move on. During Autumn 1280 he gave the order to Hugo de Sully to move on.[20] In December 1280 Angevin forces captured the surroundings of Berat and besieged its castle.[19]

Byzantine counteroffensive

The Byzantine Emperor was hoping for the Pope to stop his Latin adversaries. In fact after the death in 1276 of Pope Gregory X, the main supporter of the union of the churches, his successors maintained the same course and this restricted Charles' movements. However, in February 1281 Charles of Anjou achieved a diplomatic victory by imposing a French Pope, as the head of the Catholic Church. The Byzantine Emperor Michael VIII was excommunicated by the new Pope and Charles' expedition against him blessed as a new crusade.[17]
The situation was very complicated for Michael VIII; however, he sent help to the besieged garrison. The Byzantine army which also included Turkish mercenaries arrived near Berat in March 1281. They were under orders to avoid pitched battle and to focus on ambushes and raids.[21] They managed to defeat Angevin forces by capturing first their commander Hugo de Sully in an ambush. This spread panic throughout his army, routing them from the battlefield. The Angevin army lost the major part of its forces and only a small part found refuge in the Kaninë castle, which was in Angevin hands.[22] The Byzantine army continued its advance further into the territory. They besieged the Angevin bases of Vlorë, Kaninë, and Durrës but could not capture them. The Albanian nobles in the region of Krujë allied themselves with the Byzantine Emperor and he granted them a charter of privileges for their city and bishopric.[23]

Charles' preparations and Sicilian Vespers

Treaty of Orvieto

The failure of Hugo de Sully's expedition convinced Charles of Anjou that an invasion of the Byzantine Empire by land was not feasible,[21] and he thus considered a naval expedition against Byzantium. He found an ally in Venice and in July 1281, the Treaty of Orvieto formalized this collaboration. Its stated purpose was the dethronement of Michael VIII in favor of the titular Latin emperor Philip of Courtenay and the forcible establishment of the Union of the Churches, bringing the Greek Orthodox Church under the authority of the Pope. Its principal motivation, however, was to re-establish the Latin Empire, under Angevin domination, and to restore Venetian commercial privileges in Constantinople.[24]
Under the terms of the treaty, Philip and Charles were to supply 8,000 troops and cavalry, and sufficient ships to transport them to Constantinople. Philip, the Doge of Venice Giovanni Dandolo, and Charles himself or Charles' son, Charles, Prince of Salerno, were to personally accompany the expedition. In practice, Charles would have supplied almost all of the troops, Philip having little or no resources of his own. The Venetians would supply forty galleys as escorts for the invasion fleet, which was to sail from Brindisi no later than April 1283. Upon Philip's restoration to the throne, he was to confirm the concessions of the Treaty of Viterbo and the privileges granted to Venice at the founding of the Latin Empire, including recognition of the Doge as dominator of "one-fourth and one-eighth of the Latin Empire."[25]
A second document was also drawn up to organize a vanguard to precede the main expedition of 1283. Charles and Philip were to supply fifteen ships and ten transports with about 300 men and horses. The Venetians were to provide fifteen warships for seven months of the year. These forces would make war against Michael VIII and "other occupiers" of the Latin Empire (presumably the Genoese), and would meet in Corfu by 1 May 1282, paving the way for the next year's invasion.[25]
The two treaties were signed by Charles and Philip on 3 July 1281, and were ratified by the Doge of Venice on 2 August 1281.[25]

Sicilian Vespers

Main article: Sicilian Vespers
On Easter Monday 30 March 1282, in Sicily the local people began attacking French forces in an uprising which would become known as the Sicilian Vespers. The massacre went on for weeks throughout the island and they also destroyed the Angevin fleet gathered in the harbor of Messina which Charles had intended to use in the new expedition against Byzantium. Charles tried to suppress the uprising, but on 30 of August 1282, Peter III of Aragon landed in Sicily, it was clear that Charles had no more chances of attacking Byzantium.[26] In September 1282, the Angevin house forever lost Sicily. His son Charles II of Naples was captured by the Aragonese army in the Battle of the Gulf of Naples and was still a prisoner when his father, Charles of Anjou, died on 7 January 1285. Upon his death Charles left all of his domains to his son, who at the time was held by the Catalans. He was kept as prisoner up to 1289, when he was finally released.[27]

Restoration

Loss of Durrës

The Angevin resistance continued for some years in Kaninë, Durrës and Vlorë. However Durrës fell in Byzantine hands in 1288 and in the same year Byzantine Emperor Andronikos II Palaiologos renewed the privileges that his predecessor had granted to the Albanians in the Krujë region.[23] Kaninë castle was the last to fall to the Byzantines probably in 1294, while Corfu and Butrint remained in Angevin hands at least up to 1292.[28] In 1296 Serbian king Stephen Milutin took possession of Durrës. In 1299 Andronikos II Palaiologos married his daughter Simonis to Milutin and the lands he had conquered were considered as a dowry gift.[29]

Recapture of Durrës

Kingdom of Albania in 1368 AD before being captured by Karl Thopia. Even before the city of Durrës was captured, it was landlocked by his principality. Declaring himself as Angevin descendant, with the capture of Durrës in 1368 Karl Thopia created the Princedom of Albania
Although the Albanian territories were lost, the notion and rights of the Kingdom of Albania continued for the Angevins for a long time after Charles of Anjou's death. The Kingdom was inherited by Charles II after the death of his father in 1285. In August 1294, Charles II passed his rights on Albania to his son Philip I, Prince of Taranto. In November 1294, Philip I was married to the daughter of the Epirote Despot Nikephoros I, renewing the old alliance between the two states.[30] His plans of recovering old Angevin domains were paused for a while when in 1299 Philip of Taranto became a prisoner of Frederick III of Sicily in the Battle of Falconaria. However, after his release in 1302, he claimed his rights on the Albanian kingdom and began preparations to recover it. He gained the support of local Albanian Catholics who preferred a Catholic Italian power as their protector instead of the Orthodox Serbs and Greeks, as well as the support of Pope Benedict XI. In the summer of 1304, Serbs were expelled from the city of Durrës by its citizens and local nobles, who in September submitted themselves to Angevin rule. Philip and his father Charles II renewed the old privileges that Charles of Anjou had promised to the citizens and nobility of Durrës. In 1305, further extensive exemptions from dues and taxes were granted to the citizens of Durrës and the local nobles from Charles II.[31]
The territory of the Kingdom of Albania under Philip of Taranto was restricted to roughly the modern Durrës District. In an attempt to resolve the tensions between the house of Anjou and the Aragonese, the Kingdom of Albania and the lands in Achaea under Angevin dominion were offered in exchange for the Kingdom of Trinacria ruled by Frederick II of Aragon. These negotiations lasted some years but were abandoned in 1316.[32]
Upon the death of Philip of Taranto in 1332, there were various claims on his domains within the Angevin family. The rights of the Duchy of Durazzo (Durrës) and the Kingdom of Albania together were given to John of Gravina with a sum of 5,000 pounds of gold.[33] After his death in 1336, his dominions in Albania passed to his son Charles, Duke of Durazzo.
Coat of arms of the Thopia, reconstruction
During this period there were different Albanian noble families who began consolidating their power and domains. One of them was the Thopia family whose domains were in central Albania. The Serbs were pressing hard in their direction and the Albanian nobles found a natural ally in the Angevins.[34] Alliance with Albanian leaders was also crucial to the safety of the Kingdom of Albania, especially during the 1320s and 1330s. Most prominent among these leaders were the Thopias, ruling in an area between the rivers Mat and Shkumbin,[35] and the Muzaka family in the territory between the rivers Shkumbin and Vlorë.[36] They saw the Angevins as protectors of their domains and made alliances. During 1336–1337 Charles had various successes against Serb forces in central Albania.[37]

Last decades

Karl Topia
The pressure of the Serbian Kingdom on the Kingdom of Albania grew especially under the leadership of Stephen Dushan. Although the fate of city of Durrës, the capital of the Kingdom, is unknown, by 1346 all Albania is reported to be under the rule of Dushan.[34] In 1348, Charles, Duke of Durazzo, was decapitated by his cousin Philip II, Prince of Taranto, who also inherited his rights on the Kingdom of Albania. Meanwhile, in Albania, after the death of Dushan, his empire began to disintegrate and, in central Albania, the Thopia family under Karl Topia, claimed rights to the Kingdom of Albania. In fact Karl Topias' father was married to Helen of Anjou and was recognized as Count of Albania.[38] Karl Topia took Durrës from the Angevins in 1368 with the consensus of its citizens. In 1376 Louis of Évreux, Duke of Durazzo who had gained the rights on the Albanian Kingdom from his second wife, attacked and conquered the city, but in 1383, Karl Topia took once again control of the city.[39]
In 1385 the city of Durrës was captured by Balša II. Topia called for Ottoman help and Balša's forces were defeated in the Battle of Savra. Topia recaptured the city of Durrës the same year and held it until his death in 1388. Afterwards, the city of Durrës was inherited by his son Gjergj, Lord of Durrës. In 1392 Gjergj surrendered the city of Durrës and his domains to the Republic of Venice.[40]

Culture

Government

The kingdom of Albania was a distinct entity from the Kingdom of Naples. The kingdom had the nature of a military oriented political structure. It had its own structure and organs of government which was located in Durrës.[41] At the head of this governmental body was the captain-general who had the status of a viceroy. These persons usually had the title of capitaneus et vicarius generalis and were the head of the army also, while the local forces were commanded by persons who held the title marescallus in partibus Albaniae.[41]
The royal resources, especially income from salt production and trade, were paid to the thesaurius of Albania. The port of Durrës and sea trade were essential to the kingdom. The port was under the command of prothontius and the Albanian fleet had its own captain. Other offices were created and functioned under the authority of the viceroy.[41]
With the attrition of the territory of the kingdom, the persons appointed as captain-generals began losing their powers, becoming more like governors of Durrës, than representatives of the king.[41]
The role of local Albanian lords became more and more important to the fate of the kingdom and the Angevins integrated them into their military structure especially in the second phase of the kingdom. When Philip of Taranto returned in 1304, one Albanian noble, Gulielm Blinishti, was appointed head of Angevin army in the Kingdom of Albania with the title marascallum regnie Albaniae.[42] He was succeeded in 1318 by Andrea I Muzaka.[43] From 1304 on, other western titles of nobility were bestowed by the Angevins upon the local Albanian lords.[44][45]
Although the Angevins tried to install a centralized state apparatus, they left great autonomy to the Albanians cities. In fact, in 1272 it was Charles of Anjou himself who recognized the old privileges of Durrës' community.

Religion

Historically the territory where the Kingdom of Albania lay was subject to different metropolitan powers such as Tivar, Durrës, Ohrid and Nicopolis, where Catholicism, Greek, Serb and Bulgarian Churches applied their power interchangeably or sometimes even together. The presence of the kingdom reinforced the influence of Catholicism and the conversion to its rite, not only in the region of Durrës but also in other parts of the country.[46]
The Archbishopric of Durrës was one of the primary bishoprics in Albania and before the Great Schism (1054), it had 15 episcopal sees under its authority. After the split it remained under the authority of Eastern Church while there were continuous, but fruitless efforts from the Roman church to convert it to the Latin rite. However, things changed after the fall of Byzantine Empire in 1204. In 1208, a Catholic archdeacon was elected for the archbishopric of Durrës. After the reconquest of Durrës by the Despotate of Epirus in 1214, the Latin Archbishop of Durrës was replaced by an Orthodox archbishop. After his death in 1225, various nearby metropolitan powers fought over the vacant seat. At last a Nicean archbishop was appointed in 1256 but he could not effectively run its office since, in 1258, the city was captured by Manfred.[47]
After the creation of Kingdom of Albania in 1272, a Catholic political structure was a good basis for the papal plans of spreading Catholicism in the Balkans. This plan found also the support of Helen of Anjou, a cousin of Charles of Anjou, who was at that time ruling territories in North Albania. Around 30 Catholic churches and monasteries were built during her rule in North Albania and in Serbia.[48] New bishoprics were created especially in North Albania, with the help of Helen of Anjou.[49]
Durrës became again a Catholic archbishopric in 1272. Other territories of the Kingdom of Albania became Catholic centers as well. Butrint in the south, although dependent on Corfu, became Catholic and remained as such during 14th century. The same happened to Vlorë and Krujë as soon as the Kingdom of Albania was created.[50]
A new wave of Catholic dioceses, churches and monasteries were founded, a number of different religious orders began spreading into the country, and papal missionaries also reached the territories of the Kingdom of Albania. Those who were not Catholic in Central and North Albania converted and a great number of Albanian clerics and monks were present in the Dalmatian Catholic institutions.[51]
However, in Durrës the Byzantine rite continued to exist for a while after Angevin conquest. This double-line of authority created some confusion in the local population and a contemporary visitor of the country described Albanians as nor they are entirely Catholic or entirely schismatic. In order to fight this religious ambiguity, in 1304, Dominicans were ordered by Pope Benedict XI to enter the country and to instruct the locals in the Latin rite. Dominican priests were also ordered as bishops in Vlorë and Butrint.[52]
Among the Catholic orders operating during that period in Albania, one could mention the Franciscan order, Carmelites, Cistercians and Premonstratensians. Also from time to time, the local bishops were appointed from different orders as different popes had their favorites among them.[53]
Krujë became an important center for the spread of Catholicism. Its bishopric had been Catholic since 1167. It was under direct dependence from the pope and it was the pope himself who consecrated the bishop.[54] Local Albanian nobles maintained good relations with the Papacy. Its influence became so great, that it began to nominate local bishops.
The Catholic cause had a drawback while Stephan Dushan ruled in Albania. The Catholic rite was called Latin heresy and Dushan's code contained harsh measures against them. However, the persecutions of local catholic Albanians did not begin in 1349 when the Code was promulgated, but much earlier, at least since the beginning of 14th century. Under these circumstances the relations between local Catholic Albanians and the papal curia became very close.[55]
Between 1350 and 1370, the spread of Catholicism in Albania reached its peak. At that period there were around seventeen Catholic bishoprics in the country, which acted not only as centers for Catholic reform within Albania, but also as centers for missionary activity in the neighboring areas, with the permission of the pope.[51]

Society

While the Byzantine Pronoia was the dominant form in the country, the Angevins introduced the Western type of feudalism. In the 13th and 14th centuries, pronoiars earned a great number of privileges and attributes, taking power away from the central authority. The benefit earned by the pronoiars from their land increased. Pronoiars began to collect land taxes for themselves which was an attribute of the state. They also began to exercise administrative authorities which replaced the state's, such as the ability to gather workers, guards, soldiers, and sometimes their own judges. In the 13th century, it was common for pronoiars to arrogate their own right to trial, initially for petty issues and then for serious crimes, taking away central authority from the main prerogatives to the practice of sovereignty.[56]
By the 14th century, the pronoia had reached the status of feudal possession. It could now be passed on to succession, split, and sold. The pronoia increasingly rarely fulfilled the military needs of the state.[56] Alongside the pronoiars were landowners who owned large tracts of land worked by farmers. The landownership also included pronoiars from Durrës, Shkodër, and Drisht. Citizens of Durrës owned property and grazing land in the nearby mountain of Temali. The splitting, inheritance, and selling of the property was a common occurrence.[57]
The feudal possessions in Albania, as in the West and the Byzantine Empire, were made up of two parts: the land of the peasants and the land which was directly owned by the lords of the land. The peasant's land was not centralized, but was split into many small plots, often far from each other. The lord's land was continually expanded along the same lines that the aristocracy strengthened.[57]
Land was also centralized under religious institutions, including monasteries and bishoprics. Unlike the 12th century, where the area under control was donated by the central authority, after the 12th century, most donors of land to the monasteries and bishoprics were small and large landowners.[57] By the beginning of the 14th century, monasteries and bishoprics had been able to collect large sums of land funds.[58] The income of the monasteries came mainly from agricultural products, but a small part also came from craftwork and other activities. A central source of income to the church were from taxes gathered in kind and in cash. A good of portion went to Rome or Constantinople. The delivery of bonds was one of the causes of friction between the local clergy and the Pope in Rome or the Patriarch in Constantinople.[59]
In an effort to find additional means of finance, especially in times of war, the central authority imposed high taxes on the population. The pyramid of society depended upon the work of the farmers. Besides the main category of farmers, categories of farmers included "free" farmer and "foreign" farmers. They were deprived of land and any form of possession and were therefore not registered, placing them in a feud for the quality of wages. Eventually, they received a piece of land for which they paid their duties, and were fused with the main category of farmers.[59]
The feudal duties of the peasant were not the same for all the Albanian areas but differed according to the terrain. The systems of payment in kind or in cash also changed accordingly, but the strengthening of the nobility against the central authority in the 13th century caused the payments in cash to increase compared to payments in kind. From the 12th to the 14th century, the vertical shift of power to the nobles was deepened. Not only were the plains brought under the control of the nobles, but also mountainous areas. The feudal possessions also began to include communal areas such as forests, pastures, and fisheries. This evolution took place during the period of Byzantine decline and saw the conversion of the pronoia into an estate very similar to the feudal one.[60]
The overwhelming majority of the population under the lords' rule was made up of agricultural workers. Contemporary sources reveal that in large parts of Albania, the village population had fallen to the status of serfdom. An anonymous traveler in 1308 revealed that farmers in the regions of Këlcyrë, Tomorricë, Stefaniakë, Kunavë, and Pultë of Dibra worked the lands and vineyards of their respective lords, turned over their products, and performed household work for them. The Byzantine historian Kantakouzenos, testifies that the power of the lords of these areas depended mostly on livestock which were present in large numbers.[61]

Cities

During the 13th century, many cities in Albania made the move from being primarily military strongholds to becoming urban centers. Unable to contain the development inside the city walls, many cities expanded outside them. Quarters outside the walls began to form, called proastion and suburbium and became important economic centers. In these quarters, trade took place and shops along with workshops were centered here. Eventually, many of these quarters too were surrounded by walls to protect them. In order to secure a supply of water, cisterns in open, safe spaces were used to gather water. In some unique cases, water was also gathered from nearby rivers.[62]
In the first half of the 14th century, the population of the cities grew greatly. Durrës is estimated to have had 25,000 inhabitants. The city became a center which attracted inhabitants from the rural areas.[62] Durrës is known to have had a large number of inhabitants who came from the surrounding villages. Those farmers who migrated to the city were often forced to pay a fixed payment or to make up for this payment by working in a commune. Along with the farmers came noblemen from the surrounding areas, who either migrated permanently or spent a large amount of time in the cities to look after their economic interests. Many had possessions, stores, and houses in the city. The movement of noblemen to urban areas became normal and they were eventually integrated into the city become citizens and often taking government positions.[63]

Architecture

The spread of Catholicism affected the architecture of religious buildings, with a new Gothic style, mainly in the Center and North Albania. These areas were attached to the Catholic church and thus had greater Western connections. Both the Catholic and Orthodox churches operated in Durrës and the surrounding areas, and therefore both Western and Byzantine architectural styles were followed.[64] Western architecture could also be found in areas where Western rulers had possessions. Churches built in this form were built in Upper and Central Albania and were characterized by an emphasis on an East-West longitudinal axis with circular or rectangular apses. Among the most notable architectural monuments of this period include the Church of Shirgj Monastery near the village of Shirgj near Shkodër, the Church of Saint Mary in Vau i Dejës, and the Church of Rubik.[65] The former two churches were built in the 13th century AD while the latter in the 12th century AD. Most of the churches built in this period were decorated with murals.[65]

List of Rulers

Wikimedia Commons has media related to Kingdom of Albania (medieval).

Kings of Albania

Charles surrendered his rights to Albania to his son Philip in 1294. Philip reigned as Lord of the Kingdom of Albania.

Lords of the Kingdom of Albania

In 1332, Robert succeeded his father, Philip. Robert's uncle, John, did not wish to do him homage for the Principality of Achaea, so Robert received Achaea from John in exchange for 5,000 ounces of gold and the rights to the diminished Kingdom of Albania. John took the style of Duke of Durazzo.

Dukes of Durazzo

In 1368, Durazzo fell to Karl Thopia, who was recognized by Venice as Prince of Albania.
Part of a series on the
History of Albania
State emblem of Albania
Portal icon Albania portal

Capitaneus et vicaris generalis in regno Albaniae[41]

  • Gazzo Chinardo (1272)
  • Anselme de Chaus (May 1273)
  • Narjot de Toucy (1274)
  • Guillaume Bernard (23 September 1275)
  • Jean Vaubecourt (15 September 1277)
  • Jean Scotto (May 1279)
  • Hugues de Sully le Rousseau (1281)
  • Guillaume Bernard (1283)
  • Gui de Charpigny (1294)
  • Ponzard de Tournay (1294)
  • Simon de Mercey (1296)
  • Guillaume de Grosseteste (1298)
  • Geoffroy de Port (1299)
  • Rinieri de Montefuscolo (1301)

Marescallus in regni Albaniae[41][66]

  • Guillaume Bernard
  • Philip d'Artulla (Ervilla)
  • Geoffroy de Polisy
  • Jacques de Campagnol
  • Gulielm Blinishti (1304)
  • Andrea I Muzaka (1318)






Zog I of Albania

From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Zog I, Skanderbeg III
King of the Albanians
Ahmet-Zogu-1895---1961.jpg
11th Prime Minister of Albania
Term 26 December 1922 – 25 February 1924
Predecessor Xhafer Bej Ypi
Successor Shefqet Vërlaci
President of Albanian Republic and 16th Prime Minister of Albania
Term 1 February 1925 as President, 6 January 1925 as PM – 1 September 1928
Predecessor New Post, Iliaz Bej Vrioni
Successor Monarchy established, Koço Kota
Vidi I (as Prince of Albania), deposed in 1914
Marshal of Royal Albanian Army
Term 1 February 1925  – 1 September 1939
Predecessor New Post
King of the Albanians
Reign 1 September 1928  – 7 April 1939
Predecessor Monarchy established
Successor Victor Emmanuel III of Italy
Consort Géraldine Apponyi de Nagyappony
Issue Leka, Crown Prince of Albania
Full name
Ahmet Muhtar Zogolli
House House of Zogu
Father Xhemal Pasha Zogolli
Mother Sadijé Toptani
Born 8 October 1895
Burgajet Castle, Ottoman Empire
Died 9 April 1961 (aged 65)
Suresnes, Paris, France
Burial Royal Mausoleum, Tirana, Albania
Religion Sunni Islam[1][2][3]
Signature
Zog I, King of the Albanians[4][5] (Albanian: Nalt Madhnija e Tij Zogu I, Mbreti i Shqiptarëvet, IPA: [ˈzɔɡu]; 8 October 1895 – 9 April 1961), born Ahmet Muhtar Bej Zogolli, taking the surname Zogu from 1922, was the leader of Albania from 1925 to 1939, first as President (1925–1928) and then as King (1928–1939). Earlier he served as Prime Minister of Albania (1922–1924).

Contents

Background and early political career


Coat of Arms of Albanian Royal Army
Zog was born Ahmet Muhtar[6] Bej Zogolli in Burgajet Castle, near Burrel in the northern part of the Albanian section of the Ottoman Empire,[7] second son to Xhemal Pasha Zogolli, and first son by his second wife Sadijé Toptani in 1895. His family was a beylik family of landowners, with feudal authority over the region of Mati. His mother's Toptani family claimed to be descended from the sister of Albania's greatest national hero, the 15th-century general Skanderbeg. He was educated at Galatasaray High School (Lycée Impérial de Galatasaray) in Constantinople,[5] then the seat of the decaying Ottoman Empire, which controlled Albania. Upon his father's death in 1911, Zogolli became governor of Mat, being appointed ahead of his elder brother, Xhelal Bey Zogolli.
In 1912, he signed the Albanian Declaration of Independence as the representative of the Mat District. As a young man during the First World War, Zogolli volunteered on the side of Austria-Hungary. He was detained at Vienna in 1917 and 1918 and in Rome in 1918 and 1919 before returning to Albania in 1919. During his time in Vienna, he grew to enjoy a Western European lifestyle. Upon his return, Zogolli became involved in the political life of the fledgling Albanian government that had been created in the wake of the First World War. His political supporters included many southern feudal landowners (called beys, Turkish for "province chieftain", the social group to which he belonged) and noble families in the north, along with merchants, industrialists, and intellectuals. During the early 1920s, Zogolli served as Governor of Shkodër (1920–1921), Minister of the Interior (March–November 1920, 1921–1924), and chief of the Albanian military (1921–1922). His primary rivals were Luigj Gurakuqi and Fan S. Noli. In 1922, Zogolli formally changed his surname from Zogolli to Zogu, which sounds more Albanian.[8]
In 1923, he was shot and wounded in Parliament. A crisis arose in 1924 after the assassination of one of Zogu's industrialist opponents, Avni Rustemi; in the aftermath, a leftist revolt forced Zogu, along with 600 of his allies, into exile in June 1924. He returned to Albania with the backing of Yugoslav forces and Yugoslavia-based White Russian troops under General Wrangel and became Prime Minister.

President of Albania

Zogu was officially elected as the first President of Albania by the Constituent Assembly on 21 January 1925, taking office on 1 February for a seven-year term. Zogu's government followed the European model, though large parts of Albania still maintained a social structure unchanged from the days of Ottoman rule, and most villages were serf plantations run by the Beys. On 28 June 1925, Zogu ceded Sveti Naum to Yugoslavia as a gesture of recognition to the Yugoslav aid to him and in exchange for Peshkëpi (Pëshkupat) village and other minor concessions.[9][10]
Zogu enacted several major reforms. His principal ally during this period was Italy, which lent his government funds in exchange for a greater role in Albania's fiscal policy. During Zogu's presidency, serfdom was gradually eliminated. For the first time since the death of Skanderbeg, Albania began to emerge as a nation, rather than a feudal patchwork of local Beyliks. His administration was marred by disputes with Kosovar leaders, primarily Hasan Prishtina and Bajram Curri.
However, Zogu's Albania was a police state. He all but eliminated civil liberties, muzzled the press and murdered political opponents. Under the constitution, Zogu was vested with sweeping executive and legislative powers, including the right to appoint one-third of the upper house. For all intents and purposes, he held all governing power in the nation.[11]

Albanian King

Speaker iconRare recorded speech of Zogu

Ahmet Zogu
Main articles: Royal Albanian Army and Zogist salute
On 1 September 1928, Albania was transformed into a kingdom, and President Zogu became Zog I, King of the Albanians (Mbret i Shqiptarëve in Albanian). He took as his regnal name his surname rather than his forename, since the Islamic name Ahmet might have had the effect of isolating him on the European stage. He also initially took the parallel name "Skanderbeg III" (Zogu claimed to be a successor of Skanderbeg through descent through Skanderbeg's sister; "Skanderbeg II" was taken to be Gjon Kastrioti II, Skanderbeg's son, exiled to Italy, or Alexander Thomson (1820-1899) who was posthumously given the title by the new Albanian government in recognition of his work for the Albanian language), but this fell out of use.[12]
On the same day as he was declared king (he was never technically crowned), he was declared Field Marshal of the Royal Albanian Army. He proclaimed a constitutional monarchy similar to the contemporary regime in Italy, created a strong police force, and instituted the Zogist salute (flat hand over the heart with palm facing downwards). Zog hoarded gold coins and precious stones, which were used to back Albania's first paper currency.

Royal Monogram
Zog's mother, Sadije, was declared Queen Mother of Albania, and Zog also gave his brother and sisters Royal status as Prince and Princesses Zogu. One of his sisters, Senije, Princess Zogu (c. 1897–1969), married Prince Shehzade Mehmed Abid Efendi of Turkey, a son of Sultan Abdul Hamid II.
Zog's constitution forbade any Prince of the Royal House from serving as Prime Minister or a member of the Cabinet, and contained provisions for the potential extinction of the Royal Family. Ironically, in light of later events, the constitution also forbade the union of the Albanian throne with that of any other country. Under the Zogist constitution, the King of the Albanians, like the King of the Belgians, ascended the throne and exercised Royal powers only after taking an oath before Parliament; Zog himself swore an oath on the Bible and the Qur'an (the king being Muslim) in an attempt to unify the country. In 1929, King Zog abolished Islamic law in Albania, adopting in its place a civil code based on the Swiss one, as Ataturk's Turkey had done in the same decade.[13] The price for such modernization was high, though. Although nominally a constitutional monarch, in practice Zog retained the dictatorial powers he had enjoyed as president. Thus, in effect, Albania remained a military dictatorship.[11]
In 1938, Zog opened the borders of Albania to Jewish refugees fleeing persecution in Nazi Germany.[14]

Life as King

Reverse and obverse of a Zogian one-franc coin

100-franc banknote of Zog's reign
Although born as an aristocrat and hereditary Bey, King Zog was somewhat ignored by other monarchs in Europe because he had no links to any other European royal families. Nonetheless, he did have strong connections with Muslim royal families in the Arab World, particularly Egypt, whose ruling dynasty had Albanian origins. As King, he was honoured by the governments of Italy, Luxembourg, Egypt, Yugoslavia, France, Romania, Greece, Belgium, Bulgaria, Hungary, Poland, Czechoslovakia, and Austria.[5]
Zog had been engaged to the daughter of Shefqet Bey Verlaci before he became king. Soon after he became king, however, he broke off the engagement. According to traditional customs of blood vengeance prevalent in Albania at the time, Verlaci had the right to kill Zog. The king frequently surrounded himself with a personal guard and avoided public appearances. He also feared that he might be poisoned, so the Mother of the King assumed supervision of the Royal Kitchen.[15]
In April 1938 Zog married Countess Geraldine Apponyi de Nagy-Apponyi, a Roman Catholic aristocrat who was half-Hungarian and half-American. The ceremony was broadcast throughout Tirana via Radio Tirana that was officially launched by the monarch five months later. Their only child, HRH Crown Prince Leka, was born in Albania on 5 April 1939.

Assassination attempts

About 600 blood feuds reportedly existed against Zog,[16] and during his reign he reputedly survived more than 55 assassination attempts.[17] One of these occurred inside the corridors of the Albanian Parliament premises on 23 February 1924. Beqir Valteri, originating from the same area as Zog,[18][19] was waiting for him and opened fire suddenly.[20] Zog was shot twice. Meanwhile Valteri fled but, surrounded by the militia, took refuge in one of the bathrooms, refusing to surrender and singing patriotic songs. According to the memoirs of Ekrem Vlora,[21] he surrendered after the intervention of Qazim Koculi and Ali Klissura. Zog stepped down briefly from political activity,[22] but promised to forgive Valteri. Valteri, a member of the revolutionary Bashkimi ("The union") committee led by Avni Rustemi,[23] was set free by the Court of Tirana after declaring that it was an individual act.[24] Meanwhile, all rumors pointed to the opposition, specifically to Rustemi. Two weeks later Zog and Valteri would meet in privacy. Soon after, Rustemi would be shot.[21] It was absolutely clear that Zog was behind the attack.[25]
Another attempt occurred on 21 February 1931, while visiting the Vienna State Opera house for a performance of Pagliacci.[15] The attackers (Aziz Çami and Ndok Gjeloshi) struck whilst Zog was getting into his car. The attempt was organized by "National Union" (Albanian: Bashkimi Kombëtar"),[26] a union of Zog opponents in exile which was formed in Vienna (1925) with the initiative of Ali Këlcyra, Sejfi Vllamasi, Xhemal Bushati etc.[27] Zog was in the company of Minister Ekrem Livohova who was wounded, while Zog's guard Llesh Topallaj was mistakenly taken for Zog by Gjeloshi, who shot him three times in the back of the head. Çami's gun was stuck and did not fire. Zog came out of the event unharmed, thanks also to the prompt intervention of Albanian Consul Zef Serreqi and local police.[17] The Austrian authorities would arrest Çami, Gjeloshi, and later Qazim Mulleti, Rexhep Mitrovica, Menduh Angoni, Angjelin Suma, Luigj Shkurti, Sejfi Vllamasi, etc.[17][28] All the Albanian political Émigré in Vienna would be arrested, beside Hasan Prishtina. Most of them would be shortly released and definitely expelled from Austria. Gjeloshi would be sentenced to 3 years and 6 months of jail, while Çami 2 years and 6 months.[29]

Relations with Italy

The fascist government of Benito Mussolini's Italy had supported Zog since early in his presidency; that support had led to increased Italian influence in Albanian affairs. The Italians compelled Zog to refuse to renew the First Treaty of Tirana (1926), although Zog still retained British officers in the Gendarmerie as a counterbalance against the Italians, who had pressured Zog to remove them.
During the worldwide depression of the early 1930s Zog's government became almost completely dependent on Mussolini, to the point that the Albanian national bank had its seat in Rome. Grain had to be imported, many Albanians emigrated, and Italians were allowed to settle in Albania. In 1932 and 1933, Albania was unable to pay the interest on its loans from the Society for the Economic Development of Albania, and the Italians used this as a pretext for further dominance. They demanded that Tirana put Italians in charge of the Gendarmerie, join Italy in a customs union, and grant the Italian Kingdom control of Albania's sugar, telegraph, and electrical monopolies. Finally, Italy called for the Albanian government to establish teaching of the Italian language in all Albanian schools, a demand that was swiftly refused by Zog. In defiance of Italian demands, he ordered the national budget to be slashed by 30 percent, dismissed all Italian military advisers, and nationalized Italian-run Roman Catholic schools in the north of Albania to decrease Italian influence on the population of Albania. In 1934, he tried without success to build ties with France, Germany, and the Balkan states, and Albania drifted back into the Italian orbit.[30]
Two days after the birth of Zog's son and heir apparent, on 7 April 1939 (Good Friday), Mussolini's Italy invaded, facing no significant resistance. The Albanian army was ill-equipped to resist, as it was almost entirely dominated by Italian advisors and officers and was no match for the Italian Army. The Italians were, however, resisted by small elements in the gendarmerie and general population. The Royal Family, realising that their lives were in danger, fled into exile, taking with them a considerable amount of gold from the National Bank of Tirana and Durrës.[31][32] Since the Italian invasion was not unexpected, the gathering of gold had started in advance.[33] "Oh God, it was so short" were King Zog's last words to Geraldine on Albanian soil. Count Ciano, the Italian Foreign Minister, arrived the following day; on searching the Palace in Tirana, he found the labour room in the Queen's suite; seeing a pile of linen on the floor, stained by the afterbirth, he kicked it across the room. "The cub has escaped!" he said. Mussolini declared Albania a protectorate under Italy's King Victor Emmanuel III. While some Albanians continued to resist, "a large part of the population ... welcomed the Italians with cheers", according to one contemporary account.[34]

Former heir presumptive

Prior to the birth of Prince Leka, the position of Heir Presumptive was held by Prince of Kosova (Kosovo) Tati Esad Murad Kryziu, born 24 December 1923 in Tirana, who was the son of the King's sister, Princess Nafije. He became honorary General of the Royal Albanian Army in 1928, at age five. He was made Heir Presumptive with the style of His Highness and title of "Prince of Kosova" (Princ i Kosovës) in 1931. After the Royal House's exile, he moved to France, where he died in August 1993, aged 69.

Life in exile and Death


The grave of former King Zog I at the Cimetière de Thiais near Paris
The royal family settled in England, first at The Ritz in London, followed by a brief stay at 'Forest Ridge,' a house in the South Ascot area of Sunninghill in Berkshire, in 1941 (near where Zog's nieces had been at school in Ascot). In 1941 they moved to Parmoor House, Parmoor, near Frieth in Buckinghamshire with some staff of the court living in locations around Lane End.[35]
In 1946, King Zog and most of his family left England and went to live in Egypt at the behest of King Farouk, however Farouk was overthrown in 1952, and the family left for France in 1955. In 1951, Zog bought the Knollwood estate in Muttontown, New York. The sixty-room estate was never occupied and Zog sold the estate in 1955.
He made his final home in France, where he died at the Hôpital Foch, Suresnes, Hauts-de-Seine[5] on 9 April 1961, aged 65, of an undisclosed condition. Zog was a heavy smoker, and had been seriously ill for some time. He was survived by his wife and son, and is buried at the Cimetière de Thiais, near Paris. On his death, his son Leka was pronounced H.M. King Leka of the Albanians by the exiled Albanian community.
His widow, Queen Geraldine, died of natural causes in 2002 at the age of 87 in a military hospital in Tirana, Albania. Albania's Communist rulers abolished the monarchy in 1946, but, even in exile, the royal family insisted that Leka Zogu was Albania's legitimate ruler until his death on 30 November 2011.

Political legacy

During World War II, there were three resistance groups operating in Albania: the nationalists, the royalists and the communists. Some of the Albanian establishment opted for collaboration. The communist partisans refused to co-operate with the other resistance groups and took control of the country. They were able to defeat the last Nazi remnants and take over the country in November 1944.
Zog attempted to reclaim his throne after the war. However, the new Communist-dominated government barred Zog from returning soon after it took power, and formally deposed him in 1946. Sponsored by the British and Americans, some forces loyal to Zog attempted to mount invasions and incursions, but most were ambushed due to intelligence sent to the Soviet Union by spy Kim Philby. A referendum in 1997—seven years after the end of Communist rule—proposed to restore the monarchy in the person of Zog's son Leka Zogu who, since 1961, has been styled "Leka I, King of the Albanians". The official but disputed results stated that about two-thirds of voters favoured a continued republican government. Leka, believing the result to be fraudulent, attempted an armed uprising: he was unsuccessful and was forced into exile, although he later returned and lived in Tirana until his death on 30 November 2011. A main street in Tirana was later renamed "Boulevard Zog I" by the Albanian government.

Repatriation to Albania

In October 2012, the government of Albania decided to bring back the remains of the former king from France, where he died in 1961. Zog's body was exhumed from the Thiais Cemetery, Paris on 15 November 2012.[36] A guard of honour was provided by the French President, in the form of French Legionnaires in ceremonial dress.
Zog's remains were returned in a state ceremony on 17 November 2012, coinciding with celebrations for Albania's independence centennial. The bodies of the king and his family members now lie in the reconstructed royal mausoleum in the capital Tirana.[37] The interment was attended by the government of Albania, including the President and Prime Minister, and senior figures from the Romanian, Montenegrin, Russian and Albanian royal families.

Honours and awards

In Albania:[38]
From other countries:
[40]

Ancestry





8. Mahmud Pasha Zogolli





4. Xhelal Pasha Zogolli













2. Xhemal Pasha Zogu, Governor of Mati













5. Ruhijé Halltuni













1. Zog I, Skanderbeg III of the Albanians













6. Salah Bey Toptani













3. Sadijé Toptani





























Cultural References

Zog's name was in use by 1972 in the English language palaentological mnemonic for the names of zonal index fossils in part of the Lower Carboniferous System of Great Britain (namely Cleistopora, which geologists decided to call 'zone k', Zaphrentis, Caninia, Seminula and Dibanophylum): "King Zog caught syphilis and died".[41]

See also




Albanian Kingdom (1928–39)

From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
  (Redirected from Kingdom of Albania (1928–39))
Not to be confused with Kingdom of Albania (medieval) or Albanian Kingdom (1939–43).
Albanian Kingdom
Mbretnija Shqiptare
← 1928–1939 →
Flag Royal coat of arms
Motto
"Atdheu mbi te gjitha"
"Homeland above all"
Anthem
Himni i Flamurit
Hymn to the Flag
Menu
0:00
The Albanian Kingdom in 1935.
Capital Tirana
Languages Albanian
Religion Sunni Islam
Roman Catholicism
Albanian Orthodoxy
Bektashism
Government Constitutional monarchy (de jure)
Absolute monarchy under single-party military dictatorship(de facto)
King
 -  1928–1939 Zog I
Prime Minister
 -  1928–1930 Kostaq Kota
 -  1930–1935 Pandeli Evangjeli
 -  1935–1936 Mehdi Frashëri
 -  1936–1939 Kostaq Kota
Legislature Constitutional Assembly
Historical era Interwar period
 -  Established 1 September 1928
 -  Italian invasion 7 April 1939
 -  Government exiled 9 April 1939
Area
 -  1930 28,748 km² (11,100 sq mi)
Population
 -  1930 est. 1,003,097 
     Density 34.9 /km²  (90.4 /sq mi)
Currency Franga
The Albanian Kingdom (Gheg Albanian: Mbretnija Shqiptare, Standard Albanian: Mbretëria Shqiptare) was the official name of Albania between 1928 and 1939. During this period, Albania was a de facto protectorate of the Kingdom of Italy.[1][2][3] Albania was declared a monarchy by the Constituent Assembly, and President Ahmet Bej Zogu was declared King Zog I. The kingdom was supported by the fascist regime in Italy[citation needed], and the two countries maintained close relations until Italy's sudden invasion of the country in 1939. After the end of World War II, the Albanian King was not allowed to return, as the Albanian Communists liberated the country from the Fascists and installed a Socialist regime. Albania was the only European country led by a Muslim monarch after the dissolution of the Ottoman Empire in 1922[citation needed].

Zog's kingdom

In 1928, Zogu secured the parliament's consent to its own dissolution. A new constituent assembly amended the constitution, making Albania a kingdom and transforming Zogu into Zog I, "King of the Albanians." International recognition arrived forthwith. The new constitution abolished the Albanian Senate, creating a unicameral Assembly. Although nominally a constitutional monarch, in practice King Zog retained the dictatorial powers he had held as President Zogu. Civil liberties remained more or less nonexistent, and political opponents were frequently imprisoned and killed. Thus, for all intents and purposes Albania remained a military dictatorship.[4]
Soon after his coronation, Zog broke off his engagement to Shefqet Vërlaci's daughter, and Verlaci withdrew his support for the king and began plotting against him. Zog had accumulated a great number of enemies over the years, and the Albanian tradition of blood vengeance required them to try to kill him. Zog surrounded himself with guards and rarely appeared in public[citation needed]. The king's loyalists disarmed all of Albania's tribes except for his own Mati tribesmen and their allies[citation needed], the Dibra. Nevertheless, on a visit to Vienna in 1931, Zog and his bodyguards fought a gun battle with would-be assassins on the Opera House steps.
Zog remained sensitive to steadily mounting disillusion with Italy's domination of Albania. The Albanian army, though always with 15,600-strong, sapped the country's funds, and the Italians' monopoly on training the armed forces rankled public opinion. As a counterweight, Zog kept British officers in the Royal Albanian Gendarmerie despite strong Italian pressure to remove them. In 1931 Zog openly stood up to the Italians, refusing to renew the 1926 First Treaty of Tirana.
During the crisis of 1929–1933, Zog asked the Italians for a loan of 100 million gold francs in 1931, and the request was approved by the Italian government. In 1932 and 1933, Albania could not make the interest payments on its loans from the Society for the Economic Development of Albania. In response, Rome turned up the pressure, demanding that Tirana name Italians to direct the Gendarmerie; join Italy in a customs union; grant Italy control of the country's sugar, telegraph, and electrical monopolies; teach the Italian language in all Albanian schools; and admit Italian colonists. Zog refused. Instead, he ordered the national budget slashed by 30 percent, dismissed the Italian military advisers, and nationalized Italian-run Roman Catholic schools in the northern part of the country.
By June 1934, Albania had signed trade agreements with Yugoslavia and Greece, and Mussolini had suspended all payments to Tirana. An Italian attempt to intimidate the Albanians by sending a fleet of warships to Albania failed because the Albanians only allowed the forces to land unarmed. Mussolini then attempted to buy off the Albanians. In 1935 he presented the Albanian government 3 million gold francs as a gift.
Zog's success in defeating two local rebellions convinced Mussolini that the Italians had to reach a new agreement with the Albanian king. Relations with Italy were improved in 1936. A government of young men led by Mehdi Frasheri, an enlightened Bektashi administrator, won a commitment from Italy to fulfil financial promises that Mussolini had made to Albania and to grant new loans for harbor improvements at Durrës and other projects that kept the Albanian government afloat. Soon Italians began taking positions in Albania's civil service, and Italian settlers were allowed into the country.

Economy

Part of a series on the
History of Albania
State emblem of Albania
Portal icon Albania portal
The 11 year rule of King Zog I is noted for a great wave of modernization of the country, which had suffered five centuries of harsh Turkish rule. To fulfill the modernization of a backward country, a great amount of money was needed. The money was obtained from Italian loans. The Italians loaned the Albanians 1.837 billion Italian Liras.
In 1928, the Basic Statute was adopted, along with a Civil Code. Furthermore, an agrarian reform was instituted, removing ferexhesë. The Islamic law was replaced by the Swiss Civil Code, following the model of Mustafa Kemal Atatürk in Turkey. King Zog supported the introduction of modern architecture, and sought to improve welfare, trade balance, and the education of the Albanian youth.
In 1929, the world was caught by a major crisis caused by overproduction. Its effects were very damaging to Albania. It was in this year when Zog saw the first signs of the crisis, mainly in the financial and monetary system, but they became more sensitive in 1930. The peak of the crisis was between 1934 and 1935. Most industries were paralyzed or went bankrupt. The crisis deeply affected all credit systems. At this time, due to the ongoing budget deficit and financial difficulties evident in many areas and sectors of the country, loans were taken from Western countries, but the majority was from Italy. In 1931, Albanian agriculture was affected by a major drought, which caused serious consequences in the national food supply. In 1932, as a result of this situation, 33% more wheat and corn was imported.
The crisis of 1930–34 differs in many ways: the percentage of the population living with non-agricultural employment was reduced from 15.9% in 1930 to 15.4% in 1938. Albanian exports grew from 2 million gold francs to 12 million between 1923 and 1931, but fell back to 1923 levels within the next two years. A difficult situation occurred between 1935 and 1936, when the government was forced to distribute emergency food aid in poor areas. Places that sold Albanian goods placed tariffs on imports of cheese and butter. Traditional markets in Greece and Turkey wool were flooded, as they sold goods for cheaper prices than in the Soviet Union. The crisis affected the livestock, which accounted for 70% of the total national exports. Another significant impact was the establishment of the so-called "tax xhelepit", which decided to head / livestock. In 1933, the state cut the taxes by 50%.
Through all the turmoil of the interwar years, Albania remained Europe's most economically backward nation[citation needed]. Peasant farmers accounted for the vast majority of the Albanian population. Albania had practically no industry, and the country's potential for hydroelectric power was virtually untapped. Oil was the country's main extractable resource. After the Italians took over the oil-drilling concessions of all other foreign companies in 1939 by creating the company "Sveja", a pipeline between the Kuçovë oil field and Vlorë's port expedited shipments of crude petroleum to Italy's refineries. This was a society company who dealt with the natural resources of Albania, and the first credits were obtained from this society, that was created to steal Albania's natural assets. Albania also possessed bitumen, lignite, iron, chromite, copper, bauxite, manganese, and some gold. Shkodër had a cement factory; Korçë, a brewery; and Durrës and Shkodër, cigarette factories that used locally grown tobacco.
In 1934, the price of the grain reached the lowest level, at about 7.5 gold francs. A strong decline in prices, mainly in the agricultural and livestock industry, affected the monetary and credit policies of the National Commercial Bank. In the years of the crisis, the bank reduced the amount of currency in circulation, which and worsened the deflation. The artificially increased value of the franc lowered the prices of products. In mid-1935, Albania entered a recovery phase. Industry recovered, and Zogu created tax incentives, especially for cement factories, which were made exempt from taxes for three years.
Between 1933 and 1935, economic development emerged in the agriculture, livestock and industrial capital industries. Construction of roads and bridges began, along with 53 telegraph postaro links. During much of the interwar period, Italians held most of the technical jobs in the Albanian economy. Albania had four ports. These were the ports of Durrës, Shëngjin, Vlorë and Sarandë. Albania's main exports were petroleum, animal skins, cheese, livestock, and eggs. The primary imports were grain and other foodstuffs, metal products, and machinery. In 1939, the value of Albania's imports outdid that of its exports by about four times. About 70 percent of Albania's exports went to Italy. Italian factories furnished about 40 percent of Albania's imports, and the Italian government paid for the rest. Between 1931 and 1936, foreign capital, especially Italian, Albanian government dictated the conclusion of a customs union. This union, at that time, would include the Albanian economy in the Italian economic system and opening without limitation the Italian capital. Customs Union will be hit directly the interests of newly Albanian bourgeoisie. But the state budget, will be deprived of an important source of income, such as those by customs. At the same time increased the dependence of Albania by the Italian finance. ROC formally accepted the deal, but then refused. In 1938 there was a general activation of the national capital in the industry. In this period, the number of enterprises reached 244, while the number of employees at State administration rose up to 7.435. Industrial production rose, while agriculture was in arrears. In 1938, the total area of agricultural land estimated at 2,874 acres, about 39.5% of the occupied state and private property, while smallholders owned 60%.
Cereal production in Albania did not meet the needs. Wheat production is estimated at about 38,000 tons, while that of maize at 143,000 tons. After the crisis, the production of industrial crops rose. Tobacco accounted for about 2,600 acres. Also grew cereal crops. Were planted about 1.2 million root for cereal crops, 100,000 citrus root, 41.5 million vineyards root, 1.6 million olive trees root. During the '36–'38 period was observed recovery of the economy. Trade amounted to 32.7 million gold francs, with 65% growth. Exports grew by 61.5% and imports by 67.3%.Exports in '38 represented 66.3% of the 1928 level. During the '36–'38 state budget had increased. Albanian kingdom period was characterized by the growing number of utility works in capitalist and in 1939 were 36 enterprises in the construction industry.
During this 11 years period were made serious efforts To create a national Road network which made an investment of 60 million Gold Frangs that were taken from Italian Kingdom. During the 10-year period 1929–1939 were Built up 850 km of main roads, 456 km of roads, 4,062 small bridges 10.250 ml and 76 major bridges with 2.050 ml.This period Also introduced the construction of many works of art which As the construction of the severage network, for the first time were invested to build segments of roads in northrern part of Albania.. The most important roads were Shkodër-Puka, Mat-Bishop Bridge, Krujë-Mat, Tirana-Elbasan, Lushnjë-Mbrostar, Korçë-Burrel, Burrel-Dibër, Tiranë-Shijak-Durrës, Tiranë-Ndroq-Durrës, Tiranë-Krrabë-Elbasan, for the realization of this projects were committed qualified Of engineers from Europe. He built several concrete bridges. In 1938, the value of investments reached 150 million Albanian Lek (1961 currency prices). On the eve of the fascist invasion, Albania had 300 trucks, 20 buses, 200 cars and pickups.
During 1938, 95,000 tons of cargo transported, equal to 1 million tons per kilometer. During the same period, the total turnover of goods in retail trade amounted to 3,900,000,000 ALL old (in 1947 prices). In this year (1938) the National Radio Station went on air which was established in 28 November and was called 'Radio Tirana'. Began construction of the port of Durrës. They performed works in brace works, irrigation canals, etc., which was interrupted by the beginning of World War II (1939–1945). During 1939–43, Italy calculated in Albania Albanian 141,728,184 Gold Frangs value profits. With the capitulation of Italy the quantity of banknotes amounted to 205,000,000 Gold Frangs Albanian.

Social conditions

Poor and remote, Albania remained decades behind the other Balkan countries in educational and social development. Only some 13% of the population lived in towns. Illiteracy plagued almost the entire population. About 90 percent of the country's peasants practiced subsistence agriculture, using ancient methods and tools, such as wooden plows. Much of the country's richest farmland lay under water in malaria-infested coastal marshlands. Albania lacked a banking system, a railroad, a modern port, an efficient military, a university, or a modern press. The Albanians had Europe's highest birthrate and infant mortality rate, and life expectancy for men was about 38 years.
The American Red Cross opened schools and hospitals at Durrës and Tirana, and one Red Cross worker founded an Albanian chapter of the Boy Scouts that all boys between twelve and eighteen years old were subsequently required to join by law. Although hundreds of schools opened across the country, in 1938 only 36 percent of all Albanian children of school age were receiving education of any kind.
During the reign of Zog primary education became necessary. Despite the meager educational opportunities, literature flourished in Albania between the two world wars.Substantial progress has been achieved in the literature, and art publishing operations.Were distinguished writers as Fan Silistian Noli, Alexander Drenova, Esad Mekuli, Ndre Mjeda, Haki Stermilli, Lasgush Poradeci, Faik Konica, Sterjo Spase, Ndoc Nikaj, Foqion Postoli, Migjeni and others. A Franciscan priest, Gjergj Fishta, Albania's greatest poet, dominated the literary scene with his poems on the Albanians' perseverance during their quest for freedom. During this period also were open 600 Night Schools for the eradication of illiteracy but in 1939, 80% of adult population were illiterate. In 1939 Albania had 643 primary schools and 18 high school the most important high schools were: Pedagogical school of Elbasan, Lyceum of Korçë, Shkodër Gymnasium and the Trade school of Vlore, those who wanted to continue further education have gone abroad (Italy, Austria, France...). In 1939 about 420 Albanians studied abroad Albania.
Daily newspapers started publishing, including: "Demokracia", "Liria Kombëtare", "Besa", "Hylli i Dritës" and "Leka" along with a large number of pedagogical and scientific publications, were open so much organisations such as "Gruaja Shqiptare" to modernize Albanian society and in 1938 the first national Radio station went on-air. These were the first steps of modernization of the country, but Albania remained Europe's most backward nation in all directions and this was the reason for not development of country enough in all aspects in economy, culture, politics and military.
Not good economic development made many different strikes revolt. in the 1936 that was held by Albanian workers working in foreign companiesin in Kuçovë Oil field, that was organized by society "Puna" and another was held in Vlorë and in February 1936 was held strike from workers and crafters in Korçë, this strike was growed into a demonstrate that was Known as the "Hunger Strike". This time was recognized Migjeni poems for poverty and social situation of that time. At 1929 was well established communist society with an ideology unknown at the time for the Albanians, Orthodox and Catholic and Islamic community also Albania do not supported this party because it was an atheistic ideology.

Religion

Originally under the monarchy, institutions of all confessions were put under state control. In 1923, following the government program, the Albanian Muslim congress convened at Tirana decided to break with the Caliphate, established a new form of prayer (standing, instead of the traditional salah ritual), banished polygamy and did away with the mandatory use of veil (hijab) by women in public, which had been forced on the urban population by the Ottomans during the occupation.[5]
In 1929 the Albanian Orthodox Church was declared autocephalous.[6]
A year later, in 1930, the first official religious census was carried out. Reiterating conventional Ottoman data from a century earlier which previously covered double the new state's territory and population, 50% of the population was grouped as Sunni Muslim, 20% as Orthodox Christian, 20% as Bektashi Muslim and 10% as Catholic Christian.
The monarchy was determined that religion should no longer be a foreign-oriented master dividing the Albanians, but a nationalized servant uniting them. It was at this time that newspaper editorials began to disparage the almost universal adoption of Muslim and Christian names, suggesting instead that children be given neutral Albanian names.
Official slogans began to appear everywhere. "Religion separates, patriotism unites." "We are no longer Muslim, Orthodox, Catholic, we are all Albanians." "Our religion is Albanism." The national hymn characterized neither Muhammad nor Jesus Christ, but King Zogu as "Shpëtimtari i Atdheut" (Savior of the Fatherland). The hymn to the flag honored the soldier dying for his country as a "Saint." Increasingly the mosque and the church were expected to function as servants of the state, the patriotic clergy of all faiths preaching the gospel of Albanism.
Monarchy stipulated that the state should be neutral, with no official religion and that the free exercise of religion should be extended to all faiths. Neither in government nor in the school system should favor be shown to any one faith over another. Albanism was substituted for religion, and officials and schoolteachers were called "apostles" and "missionaries." Albania's sacred symbols were no longer the cross and the crescent, but the Flag and the King. Hymns idealizing the nation, Skanderbeg, war heroes, the king and the flag predominated in public-school music classes to the exclusion of virtually every other theme.
The first reading lesson in elementary schools introduced a patriotic catechism beginning with this sentence, "I am an Albanian. My country is Albania." Then there follows in poetic form, "But man himself, what does he love in life?" "He loves his country." "Where does he live with hope? Where does he want to die?" "In his country." "Where may he be happy, and live with honor?" "In Albania."[7]

Italian occupation

Main article: Albanian Kingdom (1939–1943)
As Germany annexed Austria and moved against Czechoslovakia, Italy saw itself becoming a second-rate member of the Axis. The imminent birth of an Albanian royal child meanwhile threatened to give Zog a lasting dynasty. After Hitler invaded Czechoslovakia (March 15, 1939) without notifying Mussolini in advance, the Italian dictator decided to proceed with his own annexation of Albania. Italy's King Victor Emmanuel III criticized the plan to take Albania as an unnecessary risk.
Rome, however, delivered Tirana an ultimatum on March 25, 1939, demanding that it accede to Italy's occupation of Albania. Zog refused to accept money in exchange for countenancing a full Italian takeover and colonization of Albania, and on April 7, 1939, Mussolini's troops invaded Albania. Despite some stubborn resistance, especially at Durrës, the Italians made short work of the Albanians.
Unwilling to become an Italian puppet, King Zog, his wife, Queen Geraldine Apponyi, and their infant son Leka fled to Greece and eventually to London. On April 12, the Albanian parliament voted to unite the country with Italy. Victor Emmanuel III took the Albanian crown, and the Italians set up a fascist government under Shefqet Verlaci and soon absorbed Albania's military and diplomatic service into Italy's.
After the German army defeated Poland, Denmark, and France, a still-jealous Mussolini decided to use Albania as a springboard to invade Greece. The Italians launched their attack on October 28, 1940, and at a meeting of the two fascist dictators in Florence, Mussolini stunned Hitler with his announcement of the Italian invasion. Mussolini counted on a quick victory, but Greek resistance fighters halted the Italian army in its tracks and soon advanced into Albania. The Greeks took Korçë and Gjirokastër and threatened to drive the Italians from the port city of Vlorë. The chauvinism of the Greek troops fighting in Albania cooled the Albanians' enthusiasm for fighting the Italians and the Greeks, and Mussolini's forces soon established a stable front in central Albania. In April 1941, Germany and its allies crushed both Greece and Yugoslavia, and a month later the Axis gave Albania control of Kosovo. Thus Albanian nationalists ironically witnessed the realization of their dreams of uniting most of the Albanian-populated lands during the Axis occupation of their country.

Legacy

Zog of Albanians was still the legitimate monarch of the country, but he would not get the throne back. The communist partisans during and after the war, backed by Yugoslavia and the Soviet Union, suppressed the Albanian nationalist movements and installed a Stalinist regime that would last for about 46 years. King Zog was banned from entering Albania by the communists and lived in exile for the rest of his life.


 
Diposting oleh di

Tidak ada komentar:

Posting Komentar

Langganan: Posting Komentar (Atom)