Mexican Empire

First Mexican Empire

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Mexican Empire
Imperio Mexicano
← 1821–1823 → →
Flag Imperial Coat of arms
Motto Religión, Independencia, Unión "Religion, Independence, Union"
Capital		Mexico City
Languages		Spanish
Religion		Roman Catholicism
Government		Constitutional Monarchy
Emperor
-	1822–1823	Agustín I
Regent
-	1821–1822	Agustín de Iturbide
-	1822	Nicolás Bravo Rueda
Legislature		Congress
-	Upper house	Senate
-	Lower house	Chamber of Deputies
History
-	Independence of Mexico	September 27, 1821
-	Agustín I of Mexico	July 21, 1821
-	Monarchy overthrown	March 19, 1823
Area		4,925,283 km² (1,901,662 sq mi)
Currency		Mexican real
Today part of		Belize  Costa Rica  El Salvador  Guatemala  Honduras  Mexico  Nicaragua  United States

The Mexican Empire (Spanish: Imperio Mexicano) was the first independent post-colonial state in Mexico. It was the only former colony of the Spanish Empire to establish a monarchy after independence. It existed from the signing of the Treaty of Córdoba in 1821 until the emperor's abdication in 1823 and the proclamation of the Federal Republic in 1824. A second Mexican Empire was briefly reestablished in 1864.
The territory of the Mexican Empire corresponded to the old Viceroyalty of New Spain, excluding the Captaincies General of Cuba, Santo Domingo and the Philippines. The lands of the former Captaincy General of Guatemala were also annexed to the Empire shortly after its establishment. The first and only monarch of the state was Agustín de Iturbide, reigning as Agustín I of Mexico.^[1]

Contents

• 1 History
  • 1.1 Background
  • 1.2 Establishment
  • 1.3 Defeat and abolition
• 2 Territory
  • 2.1 Political subdivisions
• 3 See also
• 4 Bibliography
• 5 References
• 6 External links

History

The Mexican parliament intended to establish a commonwealth under the Spanish king, Ferdinand VII. King Ferdinand, however, refused to recognize Mexico's independence and said that Spain would not allow any other European prince to take the throne of Mexico. Instead, by request of Parliament, the prominent general and president of the regency Agustín de Iturbide was proclaimed emperor of Mexico.
The First Mexican Empire was short-lived, lasting less than two years, and was ruled by only one emperor, Agustín I of Mexico, who reigned for less than eight months. A republican rebellion based on the Plan of Casa Mata then overthrew the First Empire, establishing a Federal Republic of the United Mexican States in 1824.

Background

Main article: Mexican War of Independence

Flag of the Mexican Empire Regency (1821–1822)

The various independentist factions in revolutionary Mexico coalesced around three principles, or "guarantees," for Mexican independence from Spain: that Mexico would be an independent constitutional monarchy governed by a conservative European prince; that criollos and peninsulares would henceforth enjoy equal rights and privileges; and that the Roman Catholic Church would retain its privileges and position as the official religion of the land. These Three Guarantees formed the core of the Plan of Iguala, the revolutionary blueprint which, by combining the goal of independence and a constitution with the preservation of Catholic monarchy, brought together all factions.^[2]
After officially declaring independence on 28 September 1821, the Mexican parliament intended to establish a commonwealth whereby the King of Spain, Ferdinand VII, would also be emperor of Mexico, while both countries would be governed by separate laws and form separate legislative bodies. Should the king refuse the position, the law provided for another member of the House of Bourbon to accede to the Mexican throne. Ferdinand VII, however, refused to recognize Mexico's independence and said that Spain would not allow any other European prince to take the throne of Mexico.

Establishment

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General Agustín de Iturbide, a Mexican criollo who led the insurgents in the final phases of the war, was elected head of the provisional government and of the regency which held the imperial power while a monarch was chosen. Iturbide was extremely popular after his successes in the war of independence, and on the night of 18 May 1822 a mass demonstration led by the Regiment of Celaya, which Iturbide had commanded during the war, marched through the streets and demanded that their commander-in-chief accept the throne himself.
On 19 May 1822, the Sovereign Congress named Iturbide emperor. On 21 May it issued a decree confirming this appointment, which was officially a temporary measure until a European monarch could be found to rule Mexico. Iturbide's official title was, "By Divine Providence and the National Congress, First Constitutional Emperor of Mexico" (Spanish: Por la Divina Providencia y por el Congreso de la Nación, Primer Emperador Constitucional de México). His coronation took place on 21 July 1822 in Mexico City.
As factions in the Congress began to sharply criticise Iturbide and his policies, the emperor decided on 31 October to dissolve the body.^[3] This enraged the commander of the garrison at Veracruz, Antonio López de Santa Anna, who would later be President of Mexico during the secession of Texas and the disastrous Mexican-American War. Santa Anna and his troops revolted against Iturbide and proclaimed a republic on 1 December.

Defeat and abolition

Several insurrections arose in various Mexican provinces beginning in December 1822, but they were all put down by the Imperial Army except for Santa Anna's forces in Veracruz. Santa Anna had secretly persuaded General Echávarri, the commander of the Imperial forces, to switch sides and support the revolution when it was ready to be proclaimed throughout Mexico.
In December 1822, Generals Santa Anna and Guadalupe Victoria wrote and signed the Plan of Casa Mata, an agreement between these two generals, amongst other Mexican generals, governors, and high-ranking governmental officials, to abolish the monarchy and replace it with a republic. This plan did not recognize the First Mexican Empire and called for the convening of a new Constituent Congress. The insurrectionists sent their proposal to the provincial governments and requested their adherence to the plan. In the course of just six weeks, the Plan of Casa Mata travelled to such remote places as Texas, and almost all the provinces supported the plan.
By accepting the plan, a provincial government withdrew its allegiance from the Imperial government and assumed sovereignty within its province. By the agreement with Echávarri, the Plan of Casa Mata was proclaimed throughout Mexico on 1 February 1823. Emperor Agustín was left isolated with little support outside of Mexico City and a few factions of the Imperial Army. Consequently, he re-installed the Congress, which he had previously abolished, abdicated the throne, and fled the country on 19 March 1823. Santa Anna and the other proponents of the Plan of Casa Mata went on to oversee the drafting of a new constitution and the establishment of the First Mexican Republic the following year.

Territory

See also: Territorial evolution of Mexico

The twenty-four intendences of the First Mexican Empire.

  Treaty of Córdoba

  Acquisitions (1821–1822)

Under the First Empire Mexico reached its greatest territorial extent, controlling all of the mainland territories of the Viceroyalty of New Spain from northern California to Costa Rica, including the provinces of Central America (excluding Panama, which was then part of Colombia), which joined the Empire shortly after their independence.^[4]
However, after the emperor abdicated, the Central American provinces seceded to form the Federal Republic of Central America, with only the province of Chiapas choosing to remain a part of Mexico. Subsequent territorial losses over the next several decades (principally to the United States) would eventually reduce Mexico to less than half its maximum extent.

Political subdivisions

The first Mexican empire was divided into the following intendences:

Las Californias México Nuevo México Texas Nueva Vizcaya Coahuila Nuevo Reino de León Nuevo Santander

Sonora Zacatecas San Luis de Potosí Guanajuato Querétaro Puebla Guadalajara Oaxaca

Mérida de Yucatán Valladolid Veracruz Guatemala El Salvador Honduras Nicaragua Costa Rica

Second Mexican Empire

From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

For the earlier monarchy in Mexico, see First Mexican Empire.

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Mexican Empire
Imperio Mexicano
← 1864–1867 →
Flag Imperial Coat of arms
Motto Equidad en la Justicia "Equity in Justice"
Anthem Himno Nacional Mexicano "National Anthem of Mexico"
Territory of the Second Mexican Empire upon establishment
Capital		Mexico City
Languages		Spanish
Religion		Roman Catholicism
Government		Constitutional monarchy
Emperor
-	1864–1867	Maximilian I
Regent
-	1863–1864	Juan Almonte
Legislature		Congress
-	Upper house	Senate
-	Lower house	Chamber of Deputies
History
-	French Intervention	1861
-	Maximilian I accepts the crown	April 10, 1864
-	Emperor executed	June 19, 1867
Currency		Peso

The Mexican Empire (Spanish: Imperio Mexicano) was the name of Mexico under the regime established from 1864 to 1867. It was created by the Mexican Congress with the support of Napoleon III of France, who attempted to establish a monarchist ally in the Americas. A referendum confirmed the coronation of the Austrian Archduke Ferdinand Maximilian, of the House of Habsburg as Emperor Maximilian I of Mexico.
Promoted by the powerful and conservative elite of Mexico's "hacendados", with the support of the French, as well as from the Austrian and Belgian crowns, the intervention attempted to create a monarchical system in Mexico, as it had functioned during the 300 years of the viceroyalty of New Spain and for the short term of the imperial independent reign of Emperor Agustin I of Mexico. Support came mainly from conservative Catholics, which were at the time majority within Mexico^{[citation needed]}, and the main means came from the Mexican nobility, who aimed to promote stability and end the constant cycle of unrest and revolution that had come to a terrible situation with the government of Benito Juárez.

Contents

• 1 History
• 2 Territorial division
  • 2.1 The role of France
  • 2.2 Chronology
• 3 Legacy
• 4 In popular culture
• 5 See also
• 6 References
• 7 Bibliography
• 8 External links

History

The rule of Emperor Maximilian was blemished by constant conflict. On his arrival in 1864 with his wife, Empress Carlota of Mexico, daughter of King Leopold I of the Belgians, he found himself in the middle of a political struggle between the Conservatives that backed him and the opposing Liberals, headed by Benito Juárez. The two factions had set up parallel governments; the Conservatives in Mexico City controlling central Mexico and the Liberals in Veracruz. The Conservatives received funding from Europe, especially from Isabella II of Spain and Napoleon III of France; the Liberals found backing from United States Presidents Abraham Lincoln and Andrew Johnson, after they had finished their own Civil War in 1865.

The Offering of the Mexican Crown by a Mexican delegation, Miramare, 1863.

The United States government viewed Emperor Maximilian as a French puppet, and did not regard his reign as the will of most Mexicans or see him as the legitimate leader of Mexico. They demanded the withdrawal of French forces, and France acceded.^[1] In 1867, Maximilian was executed at the orders of Benito Juárez, in the Cerro de las Campanas near Querétaro.
Maximilian proved to be too liberal for the conservatives, and too conservative for the liberals. He regarded Mexico as his destiny and made many contributions. Before his death, Maximilian adopted the grandsons of the first Mexican emperor, Agustín de Iturbide: Agustín de Iturbide y Green and Salvador de Iturbide y Marzán.

Territorial division

Departments of the Second Mexican Empire.

The Empire was divided into 50 departments (departamentos):

Acapulco Aguascalientes Álamos Arizona Autlán Batopilas California Campeche Chiapas Chihuahua Coahuila Coalcomán Colima Durango Ejutla

El Potosí Fresnillo Guanajuato Guerrero Huejuquilla Iturbide Jalisco La Laguna Mapimí Matamoros Matehuala Mazatlán Michoacán Nayarit Nazas

Nuevo León Oaxaca Puebla Querétaro Sinaloa Sonora Tabasco Tamaulipas Tancítaro Tehuantepec Teposcolula Tlaxcala Toluca Tula Tulancingo

Tuxpan Valle de México Veracruz Yucatán Zacatecas

The role of France

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Napoleon III had more ambitious goals in mind than merely the recovery of France's debts. Heavily influenced by his wife the Empress Eugenie, he was bent on reviving the Mexican monarchy. Prior to 1861 any interference in the affairs of Mexico by any of the European powers would have been viewed as a challenge to the United States and no one wanted to provoke a conflict with them. However in 1861 the United States was embroiled in its own bloody conflict, the American Civil War, which made the government in Washington powerless to intervene. Encouraged by the Empress Eugenie, who saw herself as the champion of the Catholic Church in Mexico, Napoleon III took advantage of the situation.
Napoleon III saw the opportunity to make France the great modernizing influence in the Western Hemisphere as well as enabling her to capture the South American markets. To give him further encouragement, there was his half brother, the Duc de Morny, who was the largest single holder of Mexican bonds.

Chronology

• 1832: Archduke Ferdinand Maximilian born on 6 July, the second son of Archduke Franz Karl and his wife Sophie in Schönbrunn Palace, Vienna.
• 1851: Begins career in the Imperial and Royal Navy with the rank of lieutenant.
• 1856: The construction of his castle of Miramar near the Adriatic port of Trieste began.
• 1857: Ferdinand Max appointed the governor-general of the northern Italian provinces of Lombardy-Venetia. On 27 July marries the Princess Charlotte of Belgium in Brussels.
• 1859: On 19 April relieved of his post as governor-general. War breaks out with France and Piedmont-Sardinia.
• 1861: Napoleon III suggests Maximilian as a candidate for the throne of Mexico.
• 1863: In October a Mexican delegation arrives at Miramar to offer Maximilian and Charlotte the crown. Maximilian makes his acceptance conditional on a national plebiscite in his favor.
• 1864: On 14 April Maximilian and Charlotte leave Miramar on board the Austrian ship NOVARA to sail to Mexico.
• 1865: End of the American civil war. Pressure on France to respect the Monroe Doctrine.
• 1865: Maximilian adopts Don Agustin and Don Salvador.
• 1865: Maximilian issues his Black Decree, condemning to death without trial more than eleven thousand Juarez's supporters, thus inflaming the Mexican Resistance.^[2][3]
• 1866: Napoleon III orders the withdrawal of French troops from Mexico. The Emperor Maximilian refuses to desert his Mexican supporters. Charlotte sails to Europe to plead for help, growing persecution mania robs her of her senses. Republican troops on the advance in Mexico. France and Mexico sign a series of treaties that allow France to seize the receipts of Mexican customs to pay for the French intervention.
• 1867: Maximilian and his Imperial troops besieged in the city of Santiago de Querétaro. The city falls through betrayal after 72 days. On 19 June the Emperor Maximilian and two loyalist generals executed by a republican firing-squad on the Hill of the Bells.
• 1868: On 18 January the body of Maximilian laid to rest among his ancestors in the Imperial Crypt of the Capuchin Church in Vienna.

Legacy

Today, the Second Mexican Empire is advocated by small far right groups like the Nationalist Front of Mexico, whose followers believe the Empire to have been a legitimate attempt to deliver Mexico from the hegemony of the United States. They are reported to gather every year at Querétaro, the place where Maximilian and his generals were executed.^[4]

In popular culture

The 1970 film Two Mules for Sister Sara was set in Mexico during the years of the Second Mexican Empire. The two main characters, played by Clint Eastwood and Shirley MacLaine, aided a Mexican resistance force and ultimately led them to overpower a French garrison.
The 1969 film The Undefeated starring John Wayne and Rock Hudson portrays events during the French Intervention in Mexico and was also loosely based on the escape of Confederate General Sterling Price to Mexico after the American Civil War and his attempt to join with Maximilian's forces.
The 1965 film Major Dundee starring Charlton Heston and Richard Harris featured Union cavalry (supplemented by Galvanized Yankees) crossing into Mexico and fighting French forces towards the end of the American Civil War.
The 1954 film Vera Cruz was also set in Mexico and has an appearance of Maximilian having a target shooting competition with Gary Cooper and Burt Lancaster's character at Chapultepec Castle. Maximilian was played by George Macready, who at 54 was twenty years older than the Emperor was in 1866.
The 1939 film Juarez featured Paul Muni as Benito Juárez, Bette Davis as Empress Carlota, and Brian Aherne as Emperor Maximilian. It was based, in part, on Bertita Harding's novel The Phantom Crown (1937).
In the Southern Victory Series of alternative history novels by Harry Turtledove, Maximilian's Empire survives into the 20th century, after the Confederate States of America is victorious over the United States of America after the United Kingdom and France aid the Confederacy in the American Civil War. The "Empire of Mexico" is an ally of the Confederate States of America, ruled by Maximilian II from an unknown date to 1922, and succeeded by Maximilian III who rules at least until 1946. The Mexican Empire throughout the series supplies troops to bolster the Confederates in their battles with the United States of America during the Great War and the Second Great War. Maximilian III also heads the Mexican Imperial Army and battalions of Confederate volunteers against Anarchist and Communist forces in a Mexican Civil War lasting from 1917 to 1925 (paralleling our timeline's Spanish Civil War). The fate of the Mexican Empire remains unknown after the Confederates and their allies are defeated at the end of the Second Great War.
In Mexican popular culture, there have been soap operas like "El Carruaje" (1967), plays, films, and historical novels such as Fernando del Paso's Noticias del Imperio (1987). Biographies, memoirs, and novels have been published since the 1860s, and among the most recent have been Prince Michael of Greece's The Empress of Farewells, available in various languages.